The End of an Affair- Graham Greene

The End of an Affair is a semi-autobiographical novel, written from the perspective of an up and coming novelist, and set with the back drop of World War II. The protagonist Maurice Bendrix starts an affair with his friend’s wife Sarah. Sarah’s husband is a civil servant whose impotence and general dullness leads her towards other men, but Maurice struggles to cope when she cuts off their affair without an explanation.

This is the last in a series of novels written by Greene which focus on Catholicism and religious belief. Through Greene’s protagonist many questions are raised of religion, such as whether belief in God can lead to a sense of loneliness and whether or not it injects false hope into people. Therefore it’s possible that Greene wrote these novels in an attempt to propose and make sense of these big questions himself. The character of Sarah is loosely based on a lover Greene once had, further demonstrating the autobiographical nature of the novel.

A bomb strikes outside Maurice’s house and Sarah find him limp underneath the dislodged door. Believing him dead she prays that if God brings him back she will leave Maurice and repent her adulterous sins. Maurice was merely unconsciousness and when he rises from the ‘dead’ Sarah slowly but surely starts believing in God.

One book review describes the novel as a “three-way collision between love of self, love of another and love of God.” Maurice becomes fixated in trying to find out if Sarah left him for another man and who this other man may be, before discovering that God’s presence had replaced him in Sarah’s heart. This leads to a deep resentment towards the religion that has taken away his one true love: “I wanted Sarah for a lifetime and you took her away.” 

Maurice’s resentment of religion grows into undisguised hatred. However as the novel draws to a close, Maurice seems to unwillingly draw closer and closer to the conclusion that God exists, and the novel ends with him speaking directly to God and asking to be left alone forever. This suggests that he is resigned to the fact that whether he likes it or not, God has power over him.

As well as love of God, the love depicted between Maurice and Sarah is crucial to the story. Maurice says that “there was never any question of who wanted whom- we were together in desire” and although their relationship originates from lust, it develops intensely into something else. Maurice claims “even vacancy was crowded with her”, demonstrating the ‘love of another’ that I mentioned earlier. I enjoyed the novel, and would like to read The Heart of the Matter by Greene next because it also explores Catholicism and is set in West Africa. 

On Chesil Beach- Ian McEwan

On Chesil Beach is a short novel, telling the story of two young lovers whose lives are transformed on their wedding night by words not said and gestures not made. McEwan wrote the novel with the intention that it could be read over three hours and therefore be recollected in "real time", as the events take place in a brief yet significant evening. The novel is set in pre-libertarian 1962, occcasionally described as the year before sex was invented, which would explain the statement in the opening sentence that "they lived in a time when conversation about sexual difficulties was plainly impossible."

Edward and Florence retire to their honeymoon suite overlooking Chesil beach, part of the Dorset coastline, and immediately both become victim to convention by believing that sex on their wedding night is obligatory, despite their strong inclination against doing so. By continuously switching between the two characters McEwan effectively creates a sense of dramatic irony as the two halves of the newly wed couple believe they are alone and powerless, when in fact the feeling of unease is mutual.

In an article written in the New York Times by Jonathon Lethem, McEwan's writing style is described as "microscopic" and his vocabulary as "forensic". By using scientific language to describe McEwan's style Lethem is portraying On Chesil Beach as carefully studied, each word with it's own place and each sentence with an important meaning. This is an accurate portrayal of On Chesil Beach because it's pithy nature is what sets it apart from other loves stories I have read.

The Observer review interestingly writes that McEwan details "the chance of Florence and Edward's meeting, and the little mythologies they had established with each other to make love seem like fate." In writing this, the reviewer is suggesting that although McEwan has led the reader to believe that the love they share is a consequence of fate, love at first sight and generally meant to be, it is in fact all a creation by the characters themselves. Therefore perhaps the novel is expressing the innefficiency of believing in such ideals as fate in terms of love.

Ian McEwan is often described as a modern literary legend and this was his first book I have read. Next I am going to read perhaps his most infamous and classical love story, once described by McEwan himself as his "Jane Austen novel"; Atonement. It will be interesting comparing the writing style in both and generally looking for similarlities and differences between the texts.

A Room with a View- E.M. Forster

A Room with a View is a novel written by E.M. Forster and published in 1908. The novel tells the story of a well brought up girl, Lucy Honeychurch, and her falling in love with a similarly young but endlessly more eccentic boy named George Emerson. George and his father, Mr Emerson, represent a new generation of thinkers distinctly different to Lucy and the rigid Edwardian society that restrains her. Goerge's persistent claim that he "shall want to live" and the confusion this evokes in Lucy is just one of many examples of how George's enlightened outlook on life is greatly contrasted to the strict Victorian culture which is criticised by Forster in the novel.

Despite Forster presenting Lucy as thouroughly naive and frustratingly conventional in the face of love, there are hints to a more interesting character which has merely been supressed by the society in which she has been brought up. For example, Lucy enjoys playing the piano and appears to be adept at doing so, causing the amiable Mr Beebe to comment that "if Miss Honeychurch ever takes to live, as she plays, it would be very exciting- both for us- and for her." Furthermore it is often after playing Beethoven that Lucy's emotions are most heightened; Mr Beebe once remarks that "naturally one would be- stirred up..." The metaphor of music as a form of escape continues to the extent that after Lucy and George witness a man being killed in the Piazzo Signoria, Lucy feels she has "crossed some spiritual boundary" and the roar of the river Arno is described as an "unexpected melody to her ears." The use of the word "melody" suggests that Lucy's enlightenment to the snobbery of the Edwardian society that surrounds her will have it's groundings in music.

Although I have not explored the novel in great detail (and may edit this piece after further study) I have established the that in Lucy and George, Forster has created two lovers who have to overcome greatly prejudiced societies in order to be together. This idea is recurrent in history (Romeo and Juliet springs to mind, as does Pride and Prejudice) and the concept of love overcoming great obstacles represents an aspect of courtly love which has been popularly employed by writers both past and present.

The Miller's Tale- Geoffrey Chaucer

The Miller’s Tale is a satirical story written by Geoffrey Chaucer as part of his Canterbury Tales in the 14^th century. In the two extracts we have looked at from this tale Chaucer describes the courtship of a woman named Alisoun by two very different men. In the first, Alisoun is wooed by a young man named Nicholas who is extremely vulgar, and is described by Chaucer as being subtle and cunning. But his attempt at courtship in this passage is neither of the two because he grabs her by the queynte (female genitalia) and says “For deerne love of thee, lemman (sweetheart), I spill.” The use of the word spill is a sexual innuendo and this is common throughout Nicholas’ short but effective courting of Alisoun.

On the contrary, the second man, Absolon, is depicted as being proper and pompous. Absolon “kembd his hair” and “cheweth greyn and lychorys (sweet smelling things)” so that he smells and looks sweet for Alisoun. Although Absolon is far more gentlemanly and apparently charming in his attempt at winning Alisoun he is unsuccessful unlike Nicholas, and by doing this Chaucer is mocking the divine, courtly love that other writers of his period were obsessed by. Chaucer’s hero (Nicholas) is unconventional, humorous, and in this way Chaucer in inverting the norm and being different and exciting.

One obvious difference in the men and the courtship they embark on is that Nicholas uses far fewer words in his wooing of Alisoun. The blocks of dialogue in both texts stand out and it is for reason I believe Chaucer is presenting the use of fewer words by Nicholas as vital to his success.  Furthermore, the use of rhyming couplets by Chaucer effectively lets the narrative role of the tongue and sound natural, adding greatly to the comic effect of the text.

The way in which the apparently less educated man successfully woos the women is similar to A Room with a View by E.M. Forster. In this novel Forster presents an amiable woman who falls in love with an uneducated man named George Emerson. Lucy ends up leaving her upper class, book loving husband because of her desire to be with another man.  Similarly to the extract from The Miller’s Tale, both men are upfront in their attempts as wooing the woman and both involve physical touch. This exemplifies the way both authors present Eros, physical love, triumphing over more spiritual, divine love. This is interesting because divine love has always been seen as more powerful and ambitious whereas Eros is more animalistic; however in both texts Eros is represented as true, instinctive love.

Chaucer’s humour and the description of Nicholas grabbing Alisoun  by the queynte is shocking to a 21^st century audience and therefore must have been groundbreaking in the 14^th century when it was written. Other novelists of the time portrayed true love as non-physical like Chaucer does in A Knights Tale. However in The Miller’s Tale the opposite is true.

Pride and Prejudice

Pride and Prejudice was written by Jane Austen and originally published in 1813. However the first manuscript of the novel was written by Austen more than ten years previously and called First Impressions. The novel focusses on the love of two people, Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy, and how they manage to build a bridge across the class divide they inevitably face and break down one anothers pride and prejudice. Darcy is a wealthy upper class man whereas Elizabeth is the second eldest of five sisters in a middle class family, both growing up in a rigid Victorian society.

The aspect of courtly love between Darzy and Elizabeth is central to the novel. Courtly love often refers to love that has to overcome many obstacles, and the strictly drawn class divide in Pride and Prejudice is perhaps the biggest interference in love. In this way, Pride and Prejudice is similar to the greatest love story of all time, Romeo and Juliet, because two young lovers have to battle against the odds of family prejudice. Another aspect of courtly love commonly explored is that of love at first sight, and Austen inverts this cliché because Darcy and Elizabeth originally dispise eachother. However, the original name of the novel, First Impressions, demonstrates that Austen had this factor of courtly love in mind when writing her novel.

Pride and Prejudice is a novel "defined by dialogue" and is generally free of elaborate metaphors and description. This is where Austen's novel differs from other literature I have read around my course of Love through the Ages, nost notably Tess of the d'Urbervilles. Whereas Tess was written solely around two lovers, exploring their emotion through the use of detailed and charismatic imagery of nature by Hardy, Pride and Prejudice has the benefit of other characters interpretation of events. For example, the view of Elizabeth's aunt and uncle, Mr and Mrs Gardiner, on Mr Darcy is considered as particularly valuable to Elizabeth and is therefore also treasured by the reader. Also the views of Elizabeth's sister Jane are highly credible and the two eldest Benner daughters often confide in eachother.

I thought that Austen's classic was highly enjoyable and through Elizabeth and Darcy she has created two timeless heroes. The courtly love exemplified by the two lovers is ideal to compare to other forms of less romantic love.

John Donne- Negative Love

I never stoop'd so low, as they
Which on an eye, cheek, lip, can prey ;
Seldom to them which soar no higher
Than virtue, or the mind to admire.
For sense and understanding may
Know what gives fuel to their fire ;
My love, though silly, is more brave ;
For may I miss, whene'er I crave,
If I know yet what I would have.

If that be simply perfectest,
Which can by no way be express'd
But negatives, my love is so.
To all, which all love, I say no.
If any who deciphers best,
What we know not—ourselves—can know,
Let him teach me that nothing. This
As yet my ease and comfort is,
Though I speed not, I cannot miss.

John Donne’s poem, written in the early 17^th century, is a comment on the inferiority of physical love when compared to spiritual, metaphysical love. In the opening of the poem Donne writes that “I never stoop’d so low, as they/which on an eye, cheek, lip, can prey”. Donne is stating that he was never satisfied by the physical attractions in a woman. Plato defined this physical love as Eros and the entire poem is about the pursuit of a more Divine love- appreciating female beauty not because of sexual desire but because it is a close imitation of the Gods.

A popular theory when attempting to define God’s attributes was designed originally by Saint Thomas Aquinas, and called via negativa. Via negativa attempts to define God by saying what he is not, rather than what he is, and I think Donne had this theory in mind when writing ‘Negative Love’. Via negativa is speaking about God using only negative terms to emphasise the difference between God and humanity. For example, God is not finite; he does not have material qualities, and is therefore infinite. Donne says in his poem that if his love is one “which can by no way be express’d/ But negatives, my love is so” and I think this is a direct link to the indescribable God who is beyond human understanding that the via negativa attempts to define because he can be described by no way but negatives.

Donne understood that searching for Divine love was completely different to actually finding it, because no one can ever reach the Divine love and therefore fully understand God. However pursuit of this unreachable love is necessary for intellectual fulfillment because once you know it is there, you cannot want anything else, because it is so extraordinary.  Therefore Donne says that “My love, although silly, is more brave” because compared to Eros love, which is easy to find, it is “silly” to search for something more spiritual, but also more “brave” because you learn so much more on the way.

I think the poem ends of a negative note, because Donne admits that he can never reach the Divine love he shrives so hard for, and therefore will in the end be dissatisfied. Donne says that “If any who deciphers best, /What we know not, ourselves, can know”- in other words if any one understands this negative love- “Let him teach me that nothing; This/ As yet my ease and comfort is,”- then this is at yet his only comfort. The irony is that his only comfort is not a comfort at all because no one, apart from the Divine Himself, will ever “decipher best” the love he is searching her. However, as he says in the last line: “Though I will speed not, I cannot miss” and I interpreted this as him saying he will not slow down or stop his search, because he cannot accept missing the aim of devotion, the Divine love he wants so badly, and the claim “I cannot miss” is a desperate cry. Therefore Donne has been gripped by Divine obsession, and pursuit of the Perfect, which he will forever search for in vain, making the ending very sinister indeed.

Tess of the d'Urbervilles

Tess of the d’Urbervilles  is a tragic novel written by Thomas Hardy and published in the late nineteenth century. The majority of the novel takes place in the West Country, where Hardy grew up, and the protagonist Tess is a virtuous milkmaid from a simple family. The novel starts with Tess' father, John Durbeyfield, discovering he is decsendent from a long line of wealthy landowners named the d'Urbervilles (notice the similarity between the two surnames) who were believed to have died out long ago. The story is about the drama and tradegy that follow this discovery.

The character of Tess Durbeyfield is highly amiable, and throughout the novel she is portrayed as a good person who suffers from bad luck, highlighting one of the themes of the novel; fate. Many of the rural characters in the novel dismiss mishappenings as events of fate, and Tess is the same until she is influenced to consider her beliefs by her love Angel Clare. Tess' change in view may also have been a result of the pain she suffers as a result of preventable misfortune.

Angel Clare is from a privaleged family; his father is a devoted theologian and he is the youngest of two brothers, both of whom attend Cambridge. However Clare decides to abandon the opportunities a wealthy family gives him and instead pursues a life alongside nature as a farmer. In doing so Clare goes against the social norm and consequently meets Tess. Perhaps Hardy is criticising traditional Victorian values- which were highly patriarchal, prejudice and rigid.  

One of the things I found most interesing in a novel which intrigued me to the very end was Hardy's use of small, incidental characters and the role they played in foreshadowing the plot structure. For example, immediately following the marriage of Clare and Tess, when they are leaving the dairy where their courtship took place, a crow is heard. Upon this Hardy writes that "two men were standing by the yard gate, holding it open. 'That's bad.' one murmered to the other, not thinking that the words could be heard by the group at the door-wicket." Hearing a crow upon matrimony is an old superstition meaning bad luck, and the two men appear briefly to inform the reader of this.

The language of the novel is undoubtably beautiful, meaningful and deepy philosophical. The most powerful language is used when describing the feeling of divine love between the two young lovers: "Her affection for him was now the breath and life of Tess’s being; it enveloped her as a photosphere, irradiated her into forgetfulness of her past sorrows, keeping back the gloomy spectres that would persist in their attempts to touch her- doubt, fear, moodiness, care, shame." Furthermore Tess is described early on as the "merest stray phenomenon to Angel Clare as yet- a rosy warm apparition which had only just acquired the attribute of persistence in his consciousness." Once grasped, the dialogue and description created by Hardy are highly rewarding, and enrich a novel which makes a great contribution to my course Love through the Ages.